in present-day Guatemala.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Central America 75
The Spanish ruled most of Central
America as provinces of the Kingdom of
Guatemala. This colony also included
parts of southern Mexico. It did not
include Panama. The Spanish ruled
Panama first from Peru and later from
Colombia. The only other European
rulers in the region were the British. The
British claimed Belize (at first called
British Honduras) in the 1700s.
Central America gained its independence
from Spain in 1821. Guatemala,
Honduras, El Salvador, Costa Rica, and
Nicaragua briefly joined Mexico. In
1823 they again declared independence
and formed the United Provinces of
Central America. Guatemala City was
the capital. By 1840, however, each
member state had gone its separate way.
Panama remained part of Colombia
until it gained independence in 1903.
(Belize did not gain independence from
Great Britain until 1981.)
The new countries experienced political
troubles from the 1800s into the 1900s.
They disagreed about where their borders
should be. Civil wars broke out.
Many dictators (leaders with unlimited
power) ruled harshly. The United States
sent in troops several times. By the end
of the 1900s, however, democratic governments
had begun to develop in Central
America.
#More to explore
Belize • Conquistador • Costa Rica • El
Salvador • Guatemala • Honduras
• Maya • Nicaragua • North America
• Panama
Ceramics
Ceramics are hard objects that people
make from inorganic materials, or materials
that did not come from plants or
animals. Ceramics have many useful
characteristics. In general they are
strong, although they may be brittle, or
easily breakable. Heat, water, air, and
chemicals do not easily damage them. In
addition, they usually do not conduct,
or pass along, electricity.
Traditional ceramic objects are made
from clay or other minerals that come
from the ground. This type of ceramics
includes pottery and bricks. People have
been making these types of objects for
thousands of years.
Today scientists and engineers make
ceramics out of many different materials.
These modern ceramics have many
uses. Computer chips, cars, pens, and
faucets may have ceramic parts. Dentists
use ceramics to fix teeth. Special ceramic
tiles protect space shuttles from the tre-
Central
America has
about 20
active volcanoes.
They
form the most
active volcanic
belt in the
Americas.
Ceramic plates and tiles are made from clay.
76 Ceramics BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
mendous heat created by their passage
through Earth’s atmosphere when they
return to Earth.
#More to explore
Brick and Tile • Pottery
Cereal
#see Grain.
Cerebral Palsy
Cerebral palsy is a disability caused by a
certain kind of brain damage. The word
cerebral refers to a part of the brain
called the cerebrum. This part of the
brain controls the movement of muscles.
The word palsy means a kind of paralysis,
or loss of movement. Thus, people
with cerebral palsy have trouble controlling
the movements of their muscles.
The muscles of people with cerebral
palsy may be weak, or they may twitch.
Some muscles may also “freeze” in a
certain position. This lack of muscle
control can make standing, walking, and
talking difficult. Some children with
cerebral palsy have mental disabilities,
but many do not.
There is no single cause of cerebral palsy.
In most cases the exact cause is
unknown. The brain damage that leads
to the disability most often happens
while a baby is developing inside the
mother. The damage may occur because
the brain is deformed or because it does
not get enough oxygen. An infection in
the mother, such as rubella, is another
possible cause.
Babies can also develop cerebral palsy
after they are born. Severe head injuries
sometimes lead to cerebral palsy. Such
infections as meningitis may also cause
cerebral palsy.
There is no cure for cerebral palsy.
Medicines can help to control unwanted
muscle movements. Leg braces and
physical therapy (special exercises) can
improve a person’s balance and movement.
Speech training can sometimes
develop a person’s speaking abilities.
#More to explore
Brain • Muscle
Ceres
#see Demeter.
The first signs
of cerebral
palsy usually
appear before
age 3.
A boy with cerebral palsy has a guide dog
to help him with everyday activities.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Ceres 77
Chad
Located in north-central Africa, the
Republic of Chad links Arab North
Africa with the cultures south of the
Sahara Desert. The capital is
N’Djamena.
Chad is surrounded by Libya, Sudan,
the Central African Republic, Cameroon,
Nigeria, and Niger. Lake Chad
lies in the west. Mountains rise in the
north, east, and south. The Sahara runs
across the north. Central Chad is part of
the semidry Sahel region. The southern
plains are tropical. Most of Chad is hot,
with rainy and dry seasons.
The Sahara has little vegetation and
wildlife—mainly antelope, gazelles, and
ostriches. In the Sahel thorny shrubs,
acacia trees, and grasses grow. Elephants,
hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, warthogs,
giraffes, antelope, lions, leopards,
and cheetahs live in the Sahel. Tropical
grasses and scattered trees grow in the
south.
