less area. At times glaciers covered all of
Canada, much of the United States, and
The white ibis lives in North and Central
America. Its pink face is bare of feathers.
106 Ibis BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
most of northwestern Europe. The ice
was hundreds or even thousands of feet
thick.
The lands just south of the glaciers were
colder than they are today. The ground
near the edges of the glaciers was permanently
frozen. Nevertheless, there was a
variety of plant and animal life. Few
trees could grow, but grasses and some
flowering plants covered the land during
warmer seasons. Many large mammals,
including reindeer, musk-oxen, and
woolly mammoths, roamed the land. By
the end of the latest ice age, modern
humans were living south of the glaciers
as well.
Causes and Effects
Scientists are not sure what caused the
ice ages. Changes in Earth’s orbit
around the sun may be one cause. These
changes would have caused parts of
Earth to receive less heat from the sun at
certain times. Another possible cause is
changing amounts of dust and gases in
the air. More dust and fewer gases could
have caused Earth’s surface to cool.
Whatever its cause, the latest ice age left
lasting marks on the land. The creeping
ice carried gravel, sand, soil, clay, and
even boulders. When the ice melted,
these materials were left behind in
ridges, piles, and other formations.
Many lakes formed in places where the
ice melted.
#More to explore
Earth • Geology • Glacier • Prehistoric
Life
Iceberg
A huge chunk of ice floating in the
ocean is called an iceberg. Many icebergs
are the size of houses or large buildings.
Most of their size, however, is hidden
underwater. Icebergs can easily damage
or destroy passing ships.
Icebergs come from glaciers, or large
masses of slowly moving ice. In a process
called calving, pieces of a glacier break
off into the ocean. The pieces, or icebergs,
can drift for thousands of miles.
When they reach waters that are warm
enough, they melt.
The largest icebergs ever seen were miles
across and hundreds of feet high.
Although icebergs are extremely heavy,
they float for the same reason that an ice
cube floats in a glass of water: ice is less
dense, or lighter, than water.
#More to explore
Glacier
Ice Hockey
#see Hockey, Ice.
Only a small part of a giant iceberg shows
above the surface of the ocean.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Ice Hockey 107
Iceland
The island country of Iceland is a scenic
land of volcanoes and glaciers. Though
its closest neighbor is Greenland, it is a
part of Europe. The capital is Reykjavik.
Geography
Iceland lies in the Atlantic Ocean just
south of the Arctic Circle. About 200
volcanoes dot the island. Iceland is also
known for its glaciers, or large sheets of
ice.Winters are mild and windy, and
summers are damp and cool.
Plants and Animals
Plant life covers only about one fourth
of Iceland. Bogs, moors, and sparse
grasslands are common. Animals include
foxes and reindeer. Many fish, whales,
and seals live in Iceland’s waters.
People
Nearly all the people are Icelandic,
mainly descendants of early settlers from
Norway. The main language is Icelandic.
Most people are Christians. Most of the
people live in cities and towns along the
coast.
Economy
Transportation, tourism, and technology
are vital to the economy. Fishing is also
important. Manufacturers make food
products and aluminum. Farmers raise
sheep and dairy cattle.
History
Iceland was one of the world’s first independent,
democratic republics. Its
mainly Nordic settlers formed a legislature
called the Althing in AD 930. Norway
ruled Iceland from 1262 to 1380,
when Denmark took over. Iceland
regained independence in 1944. In 1980
Iceland elected Vigdis Finnbogadottir as
the world’s first woman president.
..More to explore
Glacier • Reykjavik • Volcano
A volcano formed Crater Viti in Iceland.
Facts About
ICELAND
Population
(2008 estimate)
315,000
Area
39,741 sq mi
(102,928 sq km)
Capital
Reykjavik
Form of
government
Republic
Major cities
Reykjavik,
Kopavogur,
Hafnarfjordhur,
Akureyri,
Gardab.r
108 Iceland BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ice Skating
Ice skating is both a pleasant hobby and
a competitive sport. Ice skaters glide
across ice wearing skates—shoes or
boots with metal blades attached to the
bottom. People skate for fun both outdoors
and indoors. They skate on all
kinds of ice surfaces, from a small frozen
pond to a large indoor arena.
Competitive skating consists of two
sports: figure skating and speed skating.
Both are events at theWinter Olympic
Games. Figure skaters also perform in
ice shows around the world. The team
sport of ice hockey involves skating as
well. Ice hockey is played in schools, in
professional leagues, and at the Olympic
Games.
Ice Skates
There are three basic types of ice skates:
figure skates, speed skates, and hockey
skates. Figure skates are the best type of
skate for pleasure skating. A figure skate
has a tall boot that extends above the
ankle. The blade on a figure skate is
about as long as the boot. Each skate has
a toe pick, a jagged-toothed edge at the
front of the blade. Figure skaters use toe
picks to brace themselves when they leap
into the air.
