created a telegraph that could send
electric signals using radio waves. The
signals traveled through the air instead
of through wires. In 1897 he formed a
wireless telegraph business in England.
It made him rich.
In 1901 Marconi sent radio signals
across the Atlantic Ocean for the first
time. Some scientists had thought this
could not be done. They believed that
radio waves traveled in straight lines. As
Earth’s surface curved, they said, the
waves would go out into space. Marconi
believed that the upper level of the
atmosphere would reflect the radio
waves back to Earth. He was right.
Marconi’s wireless telegraph sent messages
in the form of coded clicks, like
earlier telegraphs did. Then other scientists
added their inventions to it. The
new devices could also send voices and
music.
Marconi was awarded a share of the
Nobel prize in physics in 1909. He continued
to experiment until his death. He
died in Rome, Italy, on July 20, 1937.
#More to explore
Radio • Telegraph
Mardi Gras
Mardi Gras is a festive holiday celebrated
with feasts and parades. It comes
before the Roman Catholic season of
Lent. Lent is a period of 40 days that
ends with Easter.
The name Mardi Gras is French for “Fat
Tuesday.” The holiday takes place on the
Tuesday before AshWednesday, the first
day of Lent. Traditionally during Lent,
Roman Catholics stopped eating meat,
fish, eggs, and other foods. On Mardi
Gras, therefore, households consumed
all the remaining foods that they would
not be allowed to eat during Lent.
The festivities of Mardi Gras can last for
many days before the actual holiday. In
some countries this period is called carnival.
One famous carnival takes place in
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. This festival lasts
about 4 days. New Orleans, Louisiana,
has the most famous carnival celebration
in the United States. Its Mardi Gras
festivities begin about 2 weeks before Fat
Tuesday.
#More to explore
Easter
One of the first
uses of
Marconi’s
“wireless
telegraphy”
was to report
the progress of
the America’s
Cup yacht
race in 1899.
A Mardi Gras parade in France includes
large balloon figures and colorful, decorated
floats.
54 Mardi Gras BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Marie-Antoinette
Marie-Antoinette was the wife of the
French King Louis XVI. While the common
people of France suffered, Queen
Marie-Antoinette spent money wildly
and thought only of herself. This helped
lead to the French Revolution. Marie
Antoinette stood for everything that the
people of France disliked about the royal
family.
Early Life
Marie-Antoinette was born in Vienna,
Austria, on November 2, 1755. Her
parents were the emperor and empress
of the Holy Roman Empire. When she
was 14 years old, she married Louis.
Queen of France
Louis and Marie-Antoinette became
king and queen in 1774. At the time,
France was a feudal society. This means
that the aristocracy, or noble class,
owned the land, and the peasants paid
to farm the land. The peasants suffered
greatly under this system.
By the late 1700s the country was also
running out of money. The French had
spent a great deal to help the colonists
during the American Revolution. Even
though the French people were suffering,
the king and queen spent large
amounts of money to pay for their
expensive lifestyle.
The French people finally rose up in
protest and began the French Revolution
in 1789. Louis and Marie-
Antoinette stayed king and queen, but
they became afraid. In 1791 they tried
to escape France and move to Austria.
The people caught them and took them
back to Paris. Marie-Antoinette then
asked Austria to help stop the revolution.
The French people grew even
angrier at her.
Last Days
In August 1792 revolutionaries took
Louis and Marie-Antoinette prisoner. In
September France became a republic—a
country ruled by the people. In January
1793 the people put the king to death.
They put Marie-Antoinette to death on
October 16, 1793.
#More to explore
French Revolution • Louis XVI
Marigold
Marigolds are plants that bear brightly
colored blooms. They are popular in
flower gardens. People also plant mari-
According to a
famous story,
Marie-
Antoinette said
“Let them eat
cake” to someone
who told
her that the
poor people
had no bread.
The story is
probably not
true.
Marie-Antoinette
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Marigold 55
golds among vegetables. Their leaves
have a strong scent that can drive away
insect pests.
Marigolds are native to southwestern
North America, Central America, and
South America. There are about 30 different
species, or types. They are annual
plants, which means that they live for
only one year. The most popular varieties
include the French and African
marigolds.
Marigolds usually grow to a height of
about 1 to 5 feet (0.3 to 1.5 meters).
Their flowers are usually red, orange, or
yellow. There may be just one flower or
a few on each stem.
Marigolds grow well in sunny areas.
They typically bloom from summer
until the first frost.
#More to explore
Flower • Plant
Marines
Marines are a type of soldier. The first
marines were soldiers trained to fight
aboard warships. Later marines traveled
to enemy lands on ships and then went
onshore to fight. Today marine forces
