that diseases were caused by the gods or
evil spirits. Another important ancient
doctor was Galen of Pergamum, in the
Roman Empire. He wrote many works
about the human body.
In about AD 1000 a doctor from Iran
named Avicenna wrote an important
medical book. Doctors in the Middle
East and Europe followed the teachings
of this book for centuries.
From the 1500s to the 1700s Europeans
used science to make many medical discoveries.
By the late 1700s an English
doctor discovered vaccines. These are
substances that can prevent disease.
Doctors in the 1800s began to use
stethoscopes, X-rays, and many other
helpful devices. They learned how germs
cause disease. They also learned that
cleaning hands and medical instruments
helps to kill germs.
In the 1900s scientists developed vaccines
to prevent many diseases and drugs
to treat many others. Doctors transplanted
organs from one person into
another. They used many machines to
help them to identify and treat diseases.
They also learned how good nutrition
helps people to stay healthy.
Today doctors have many ways to help
patients heal. But there are still many
Two surgeons look at X-rays of a patient’s
body. Surgeons are doctors who perform
surgery, or operations.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Medicine 93
unanswered questions in medicine. For
example, scientists are still searching for
cures for cancer, AIDS, and many other
diseases.
..More to explore
Disease, Human • Drug • Hospital
• Nursing • Surgery • Transplant
• Vaccine • X-rays
Mediterranean
Sea
The Mediterranean is a large sea that
separates Europe from Africa. It
stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in the
west to Asia in the east. Many early civilizations
developed in the Mediterranean
region.
Geography
The Mediterranean Sea covers about
970,000 square miles (2,510,000 square
kilometers). In the west a narrow waterway
called the Strait of Gibraltar connects
the Mediterranean with the
Atlantic Ocean. The Dardanelles Strait,
the Sea of Marmara, and the Bosporus
Strait connect the Mediterranean to the
Black Sea in the northeast. In the southeast
the Suez Canal links the Mediterranean
to the Red Sea. The large islands of
the Mediterranean include Corsica, Sardinia,
Sicily, Crete, and Cyprus. The
region has mild, wet winters and hot,
dry summers.
Some parts of the Mediterranean have
their own names. For example, the
Aegean Sea lies between Greece and
Turkey. The Adriatic Sea separates Italy
from the Balkan Peninsula.
Economy
Tourism is a major source of money for
many countries around the Mediterranean.
Tuna, sardines, and anchovies are
valuable fish catches. Some Mediterranean
countries produce petroleum (oil)
and natural gas.
History
The Egyptians, the Phoenicians, the
Greeks, and other peoples created great
civilizations in the Mediterranean region
in ancient times. They sailed across the
sea to trade with other peoples. They
also used the sea as a route to expand
their territories. The Romans did this for
almost 1,000 years, beginning in about
Italy’s Amalfi coast looks out onto the Mediterranean
Sea.
94 Mediterranean Sea BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
500 BC. They called the Mediterranean
Sea Mare Nostrum, which means “our
sea.” Beginning in the AD 600s Muslim
Arabs began to move from Arabia into
North Africa and Spain. In the centuries
that followed, the sea continued to serve
as a trading route for all the people of
the region.
#More to explore
Adriatic Sea • Aegean Sea • Atlantic
Ocean • Suez Canal
Meiji
The emperor Meiji ruled Japan from
1867 until 1912. When his reign began,
Japan was a simple country that kept
itself apart from other countries. By the
time it ended, Japan was a modern
world power.
Meiji was born on November 3, 1852,
in Kyoto, Japan. His original name was
Sachi No Miya. He was the son of the
emperor Komei. As a child, Meiji was
called Mutsuhito. At his coronation
(crowning ceremony) in 1868, he took
the name Meiji, which means “enlightened
government.”
At the time when Meiji became emperor
Japan was undergoing major changes. In
1854 Japan had opened its borders to
the rest of the world for the first time in
250 years. Many leaders and citizens
began calling for change.
At the beginning of Meiji’s rule, Japan’s
shoguns (mighty warlords) fell from
power. They had controlled the country
for hundreds of years. Under Meiji,
however, the emperor became the head
of the government.
During his reign Meiji approved many
more changes. He made powerful
landowners turn over their land to
farmers. He ordered a new school
system. He also ordered a modern
system of government. A new
constitution went into effect in 1889.
The Japanese Diet, a national assembly,
first met in 1890.
In addition, Meiji pushed for a modern
army and navy to replace Japan’s traditional
warriors, the samurai. During
Meiji’s reign, Japan won wars with
China and Russia.
Unlike earlier emperors, Meiji allowed
the common people to see him. He also
woreWestern clothing. Meiji died in
Tokyo, Japan, on July 30, 1912.
#More to explore
Japan
A priest of the Japanese religion called
Shinto blesses children during a festival at
the Meiji Shrine. The Meiji Shrine in Tokyo,
