The work of sociologists helps to explain
the causes of poverty, crime, and other
problems in society. This information is
helpful to lawmakers, business leaders,
Games played in the schoolyard can show
sociologists how children in a society act
with one another.
Social scientists study many types of groups
of people, including the family.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Sociology 121
educators, and others working to
improve human life.
..More to explore
Anthropology • Psychology • Social
Science
Sofia
Population
(2008 estimate)
1,240,790
Sofia is the capital of Bulgaria, a country
in southeastern Europe. It is Bulgaria’s
largest city. Sofia was named after Saint
Sofia Church, which was built in the
city in about the 500s.
Many people in Sofia work for the government
or in tourism or other service
industries. The city is Bulgaria’s main
center of industry and trade. Factories in
Sofia process foods and metals and make
electronics, machinery, and cloth. Engineering
is also a leading industry.
Sofia is an ancient city. People called the
Thracians settled in the Sofia area more
than 2,700 years ago. About 700 years
after that the Romans conquered the
city. The city later became part of the
Byzantine Empire.
The Bulgarians made Sofia part of their
state in AD 809. The Turkish Ottoman
Empire controlled the city from the late
1300s to the late 1800s. Sofia has been
the capital of Bulgaria since 1879.
..More to explore
Bulgaria
Softball
Softball is a sport that has rules similar
to those of baseball. However, softball
has a smaller field and a larger, softer
ball. Also, a softball pitcher throws the
ball with an underhand motion. Both
men and women play softball.
Playing Area and Equipment
A softball field is shaped like a triangle
with one rounded side. This is the same
shape as a baseball field. The field is
divided into an infield and an outfield.
Four bases lie inside the infield. The
The Alexander Nevsky Cathedral
is an Eastern Orthodox church in
Sofia, Bulgaria. It was built in
the early 1900s.
122 Sofia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
bases are called home plate, first base,
second base, and third base. They mark
the corners of a square area called the
diamond. The sides of the diamond are
about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long. A
pitcher’s mound rises in the middle of
the diamond. The outfield lies beyond
the infield.
A softball is about 12 inches (30.5 centimeters)
around. The players wear
webbed gloves to catch the ball. To hit
the ball, they use a rounded bat.
Playing the Game
A softball team has nine or 10 players.
During a game two teams take turns
fielding, or playing defense, and
batting, or playing offense. The fielding
team’s pitcher stands on the mound.
The catcher plays behind home plate to
catch the ball. One player plays at each
base, and the others cover the rest of
the field.
The batting team tries to score runs, or
points, against the fielding team. It
sends batters, one at a time, to home
plate. Batters try to hit the ball, which
the pitcher throws toward home plate. If
the batter swings at the ball and misses,
it is called a strike. If the batter does not
swing, the pitch is called either a strike
or a ball, depending on whether it was
good or bad. Three strikes make an out,
or the end of the batter’s turn. Four balls
make a walk, which means the batter
goes to first base. If the batter hits the
ball into the field, he or she begins to
run around the bases.
After the batter hits the ball, the players
in the field try to get the batter out.
They can do this by catching the ball,
touching the batter with the ball, or
getting the ball to first base before the
batter gets there. If the batter reaches a
base without any of these things
happening, the batter is safe. This
player may then move to the next base
when the next batter hits the ball.
When a player on the batting team has
touched all four bases, he or she scores
a run.
The batting team keeps batting until
there are three outs. After both teams
have a turn batting, an inning is finished.
Seven innings make up a game.
At the end of the game, the team with
more runs wins. The teams may play
extra innings to break a tie score.
History
Many people think that softball was
invented in Chicago, Illinois, in 1887.
Men’s and women’s teams soon formed
Playing softball is a popular way
to get exercise and have fun.
In its early
days softball
was known as
kitten ball,
mush ball,
diamond ball,
indooroutdoor,
and
playground
ball.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Softball 123
elsewhere in the United States and in
Canada. The Amateur Softball
Association of America (ASA) was
formed in 1933. The ASA still oversees
softball in the United States. The first
International Softball World
Championships were held in 1965. In
1976 the International Women’s
Professional Softball League was
formed. In 1996 women’s softball was
added to the Summer Olympics.
#More to explore
Baseball • Olympic Games
Soil
Soil is a mixture of minerals and organic
material that covers much of Earth’s
surface. Minerals are bits of rock, and
organic material is the remains of living
things that have died. Soil is not as solid
