Famines rarely start suddenly. There is
usually a warning time during which
steps can be taken. Government leaders
can store extra food and later give it to
hungry people. They can also ask other
countries for help.
Fascism
In ancient Rome, the fasces—a bundle
of rods strapped together around an
ax—was a symbol of power. In 1919 the
Italian leader Benito Mussolini named
his forces fasci, after this symbol. Later,
Mussolini’s style of government became
known as fascism. Fascist leaders believe
that the strength of the country is more
important than the well-being of the
people. They rule as dictators, or rulers
with unlimited power. They often use
violence.
Characteristics of Fascism
Experts disagree about the exact meaning
of the term fascism. However, the
governments that have been called fascist
in the past had certain characteristics
in common. Under these governments,
the people had few freedoms. They had
no voice in the government. Instead, a
strong leader controlled everything and
became a symbol of the country. The
leader built up the police force to punish
people who disobeyed. The leader also
built up the army and threatened other
countries. The leader blamed minority
groups for the country’s problems.
History
European writers began to introduce
fascist ideas in the 1800s. AfterWorld
The fasces of ancient Rome consisted of a
bundle of rods and an ax strapped
together. The Italian leader Benito Mussolini
compared his followers to the rods of the
fasces. Each rod by itself may be weak, but
when many rods are bound together they
are strong.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Fascism 7
War I (1914–18) many countries faced
economic problems. In some, the people
were unhappy with the results of the
war. Fascists came to power by promising
the people power and glory. Mussolini
took power in Italy. Adolf Hitler led
Nazi Germany. These countries began to
build up strong armies. They used the
armies to take over other countries.
These actions resulted in WorldWar II
(1939–45). Italy and Germany fought
on the same side during the war. They
lost the war, however, and their fascist
governments fell.
After the war, the major fascist
movement was dead. However, rulers in
such countries as Spain and Portugal
continued to follow some fascist ideas.
Some political groups in other
countries—for example, Austria,
France, Argentina, South Africa, Libya,
and Iraq—also used some fascist ideas.
This development was called
neofascism, or new fascism.
#More to explore
Dictatorship • Hitler, Adolf • Nazi Party
Feather
Feathers are lightweight growths that
cover a bird’s body. All birds have feathers,
but no other animals have them.
According to many scientists, birds
developed from reptiles millions of years
ago. As the reptiles became birds, their
scales became feathers.
Feathers are important to survival, so
birds spend a lot of time cleaning and
taking care of them. At least once a year
birds shed their feathers through a process
called molting. Then new feathers
grow in.
Structure
Like hair, fingernails, and claws, feathers
are made of a substance called keratin.
Keratin is both lightweight and strong.
All feathers have a stiff stalk, called a
shaft, in the center. One end of the
shaft, called the quill, sticks into the
bird’s skin. The rest of the shaft is called
the rachis.
One hundred
years ago
women decorated
their
hats with large
feathers. Some
kinds of birds
were almost
wiped out by
hunters collecting
such
feathers.
Tiny hooks hold together the feathers on a
bird’s body.
8 Feather BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Pairs of stiff branches, called barbs, stick
out in both directions all along the
rachis. From these barbs grow smaller
barbs, called barbules. The barbules have
hooks on them. The hooks attach themselves
to other nearby barbules so that
the feathers hold together on the bird’s
body.
Some birds do not have these barbules
and hooks holding the feathers in place.
The feathers of these birds look more
like hair.
Types and Uses
Different kinds of feathers have different
purposes. Straight, stiff feathers give
birds their ability to fly. Tail feathers
help with steering, balance, and braking.
Small, fluffy feathers, called down, keep
a bird’s body from getting too cold and
its skin from getting wet.
People in many cultures also use feathers.
They decorate hats, clothing, and
jewelry with colorful feathers. They fill
clothing, pillows, and comforters with
down for softness and warmth. Some
governments protect rare birds from
hunters who would kill them for their
feathers.
#More to explore
Bird • Hair
Federalist Papers
The Federalist papers are a series of 85
essays published in 1787 and 1788.
Alexander Hamilton, James Madison,
and John Jay wrote the essays to explain
why the new Constitution would be
good for the United States. Scholars still
recommend the Federalist papers to
anyone who wants to understand the
Constitution.
A group of men wrote the Constitution
in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1787.
The Constitution set up a federal system
of government. In a federal system the
national government and the state governments
share power. People who supported
