fields and pastures.
Ferns come in a wide variety of sizes
and shapes. The smallest ferns are only
a fraction of an inch tall. The largest
ferns measure from 30 to 80 feet (10 to
25 meters) tall. Young fern leaves are
tightly curled. When they grow and
begin to unfurl, they resemble the neck
of a violin.
Ferns grow millions of cells called spores
on the underside of their leaves. These
spores scatter into the air. A small number
of them fall on damp surfaces and
soils. They grow into tiny, kidneyshaped
structures. These structures produce
male and female cells, which
together produce a new fern.
People often use ferns to decorate their
homes and gardens. Such animals as
deer eat ferns, and some birds use them
to line their nests.
#More to explore
Plant
Fertile Crescent
The Fertile Crescent is a part of the
Middle East where some of the world’s
first civilizations began. In ancient times
the land there was fertile, or good for
growing crops. On a map, the land
forms the shape of a crescent moon. The
Fertile Crescent extends from the Persian
Gulf to the Nile River valley. It
A type of fern known as a shield fern grows
in a rocky crevice.
12 Fertile Crescent BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
includes the areas known as Mesopotamia
and Palestine.
The people of Mesopotamia (now Iraq)
may have settled in villages as long ago
as 8000 BC. They farmed the land near
the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. By about
3500 BC they may have built cities. They
also developed governments, laws, and
writing. Historians describe such a society
as civilized.
Another early civilization arose in
ancient Egypt. Soon after 5000 BC
people were raising crops using water
from the Nile.
#More to explore
Civilization • Egypt, Ancient
• Mesopotamia • Middle East
Festival and
Holiday
People everywhere celebrate special days
known as festivals or holidays. Although
each festival and holiday has a different
purpose, they tend to have some things
in common. Many are associated with
traditions. These include decorating a
tree at Christmas or lighting menorah
candles during Hanukkah. Festivals and
holidays also bring people together in a
variety of ways. For some holidays
people join together for solemn
ceremonies—such as honoring the war
dead on Memorial Day. Other holidays,
such as Mardi Gras, are occasions for
joyous celebrations.
The word festival comes from the word
feast (an elaborate meal). Many festivals
were originally connected with the
planting or harvesting of crops. Food
still plays a major role in many of
today’s festivals and holidays. The
Thanksgiving turkey is an example of a
traditional food linked to a holiday.
The word holiday originally meant
“holy day.” Many holidays are still religious
occasions—for example, the Muslim
holy month of Ramadan. Other
holidays are not religious. For instance,
national holidays, such as the Fourth of
July in the United States, help citizens to
remember their country’s history.
Feudalism
Feudalism was a social system that developed
during the period called the
Middle Ages in Europe. It probably
began after the rule of Charlemagne, the
leader of a mighty European empire.
After Charlemagne’s death in 814 his
During the Harbin Ice Festival in China,
people visit huge ice structures that are lit
up with colored lights.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Feudalism 13
empire broke into several pieces. No one
central government replaced it. Instead
people lived in smaller local units or
kingdoms. The individual kingdoms
faced attacks by Vikings and other
people, including nearby kingdoms. The
people established relationships within
their units that allowed them to live in
relative peace.
How FeudalismWorked
To protect themselves, local warlords
built castles. They also depended on
warriors on horseback called knights.
A lord and his knights formed a bond by
swearing oaths of loyalty. The lord gave
each knight, also called a vassal, land
that was known as a fief. In exchange,
the knights vowed to perform military
service whenever the lord asked. Eventually
the lords themselves became vassals
of a king.
Common people, called peasants, were
at the bottom of the feudal society. They
farmed the land and did the other work
that supported the lords and vassals.
Peasants called serfs lived in a village
near the lord’s castle. They were not
slaves, but they were not free to move
away. They owed the lord work and payments
of food. In return they got protection
from outside attackers.
The End of Feudalism
Feudalism developed in times of violence
and disorder. The new system
brought safety and order. This allowed
people to travel and to establish trade.
People became more wealthy, and
money was used more frequently. Eventually
vassals started to pay rent to their
lords instead of giving military service.
Many lords used the money to hire professional
soldiers instead of depending
on knights.
By the 1300s feudalism had disappeared
almost completely. Europeans created
new forms of government that were not
based on the fief. Monarchies, or rule by
kings, grew stronger.
However, traces of feudalism stayed on
in Europe for hundreds of years. Peasants
