17 David Patrikarakos, War in 140 Characters: How Social Media Is Reshaping Conflict in the Twenty-First Century (New York: Basic Books, 2017).
18 For more on the concept of computational propaganda, see Samuel C. Woolley and Philip N. Howard, eds., Computational Propaganda: Political Parties, Politicians, and Political Manipulation on Social Media (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019).
19 Julian E. Barnes and Sheera Frenkel, “Pentagon Orders Review of Its Overseas Social Media Campaigns,” New York Times, September 19, 2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/19/us/politics/pentagon-social-media.html.
20 Niko Vorobyov, “Meduza Editor: ‘Russia’s State Media Is Terrifyingly Effective,’” Aljazeera, April 7, 2022, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/4/7/meduza-editor-kovalyov-there-is-no-media-landscape-in-russia.
21 “About,” Facebook, September 2, 2009, https://www.facebook.com/cctvcom/about_profile _transparency.
22 Renée DiResta and John Perrino, “U.S. Influence Operations: The Military’s Resurrected Digital Campaign for Hearts and Minds,” Lawfare, October 11, 2022, https://www.lawfaremedia.org/article/us-influence-operations-militarys-resurrected-digital-campaign-hearts-and-minds.
23 Michael J. Waller, “Putin Propaganda Picks Up Ex-Pentagon Contractors,” February 11, 2016, Internet Archive, https://web.archive.org/web/20160317024555/http://aminewswire.com/stories/510662541-putin-propaganda-picks-up-ex-pentagon-contractors.
24 Graphika and Stanford Internet Observatory, “Unheard Voice,” Graphika, August 24, 2022, https://graphika.com/reports/unheard-voice.
25 Lizzie Dearden, “Isis Using Kittens and Honey Bees in Bid to Soften Image in Dabiq Propaganda Magazine,” The Independent, August 2, 2016, https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/isis-kittens-honey-bees-dabiq-propaganda-recruits-photo-soften-image-terror-a7168586.html.
26 A term originating with anarchists of the First International to refer to a propaganda strategy in which an atrocity is committed to raise awareness of a group and its mission—specifically, to incite a revolution. Constance Bantman, “Introduction,” in The French Anarchists in London: Exile and Transnationalism in the First Globalisation (Liverpool, UK: Liverpool University Press, 2013), 1–12.
27 J. M. Berger, “The Evolution of Terrorist Propaganda: The Paris Attack and Social Media,” Brookings, January 27, 2015, https://www.brookings.edu/articles/the-evolution-of-terrorist-propaganda-the-paris-attack-and-social-media.
28 J. M. Berger and Jonathon Morgan, “The ISIS Twitter Census: Defining and Describing the Population of ISIS Supporters on Twitter,” Brookings, March 2015, https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/isis_twitter_census_berger_morgan.pdf; “Combating Violent Extremism,” Twitter Blog, February 5, 2016, https://blog.twitter.com/official/en_us/a/2016/combating-violent-extremism.html.
29 Jenna McLaughlin, “Twitter Is Not at War with ISIS. Here’s Why,” Mother Jones, November 18, 2014, https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2014/11/twitter-isis-war-ban-speech.
30 Julia Greenberg, “Why Facebook and Twitter Can’t Just Wipe Out ISIS Online,” Wired, November 21, 2015, https://www.wired.com/2015/11/facebook-and-twitter-face-tough-choices-as-isis-exploits-social-media.
31 Caleb Garling, “Twitter C.E.O. Dick Costolo on Receiving Death Threats from ISIS,” Vanity Fair, October 9, 2014, https://www.vanityfair.com/news/tech/2014/10/twitter-ceo-death-threats-isis.
32 Tobias Salinger, “ISIS Supporters Celebrate Paris Attacks on Twitter with Hateful Hashtag ‘Paris Is Burning’: Reports,” New York Daily News, November 14, 2015, https://www.nydailynews.com/2015/11/14/isis-supporters-celebrate-paris-attacks-on-twitter-with-hateful-hashtag-paris-is-burning-reports.
33 Nabeelah Jaffer, “The Secret World of Isis Brides: ‘U Dnt Hav 2 Pay 4 ANYTHING If u r Wife of a Martyr,’” The Guardian, June 24, 2015, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jun/24/isis-brides-secret-world-jihad-western-women-syria.
34 Rita Katz, “The State Department’s Twitter War with ISIS Is Embarrassing,” Time, September 16, 2014, https://time.com/3387065/isis-twitter-war-state-department.
35 This campaign of the Center for Strategic Counterrorism Communications began at the end of 2013, with an affiliated YouTube channel and Facebook page launching in summer of 2014. Alberto M. Fernandez, “Here to Stay and Growing: Combating ISIS Propaganda Networks,” Brookings, October 2015, https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/is-propaganda_web_english.pdf.
36 Jeff Giesea, “It’s Time to Embrace Memetic Warfare,” Defence Strategic Communications 1, no. 1 (March 1, 2016): 67–75, https://doi.org/10.30966/2018.riga.1.4.
37 Berger, “The Evolution of Terrorist Propaganda.”
38 DiResta and Goldstein, “Full-Spectrum Propaganda in the Social Media Era.”
