The World полностью

Nicholas, the Orthodox champion, saw the Greeks as a way to crack the Ottomans; in Britain, Parliament was dominated by George Canning, the bald, nervy, brilliant son of an impoverished Anglo-Irish vintner and an actress, who was tentative about reform at home but saw an opportunity for Britain in the new nations abroad – from Gran Colombia to Greece. ‘Our foreign policy cannot be conducted against the will of the nation,’ he said. In Greece, he joined forces with Nicholas, sending fleets to protect the Greeks. Mehmed Ali advised the sultan to be cautious, but was ignored.

At Navarino, on 20 October 1827, the Anglo-Franco-Russian fleet sank the Egyptian–Ottoman fleet – and Ibrahim returned to Egypt. Mehmed was incensed by the Ottoman folly. Canning and Nicholas now backed a new country – Greece – that was a new type of state, formed by self-determination, which aspired to recreate an ancient history, language and nation. It was the first of many which, over the next century, were relaunched out of the dynastic empires. A new way of imagining politics, it became the only way.

Canning celebrated Bolívar’s new nations. ‘Spanish America is free,’ he said, recognizing Bolívar’s Gran Colombia. He added melodramatically, ‘I called the New World into existence to redress the balance of the Old.’

Bolívar had won the war, but he struggled to control the peace.

ARE YOU STABBING ME, KING OF THE WORLD? BOLíVAR AND SHAKA

In 1828, Bolívar, inspired by both America and Britain to devise a way out of ‘anarchy’, assembled a congress at Ocaña to agree a constitution for Gran Colombia, but when the meeting broke up he imposed his own Organic Decree declaring himself president for life with the right to name his successor. Cadaverous and sick, Bolívar struggled to control his colossal state. His paramour Manuela refused to return to her English husband and rejoined Bolívar, scandalizing society with her power (nicknamed La Presidenta), dancing and frizelations while he dreamed of more conquests. Seizing power in Bogotá, he was declared president-Liberator. ‘The republic will be lost,’ he declared, ‘unless it gives me the fullest authority.’ Yet, to his horror, he was now hated as a tyrant.

As Bolívar’s enemies in south America planned his murder, in south Africa intimate killers stalked Shaka.

On 22 September 1828, Shaka was sitting on the mats outside his house at KwaDukuza admiring his cattle herd and receiving delegations, served by his isigodlo women, when suddenly his half-brothers Dingane and Mhlangana appeared, spears hidden under their cloaks. Shaka had established his kingdom using new military tactics and unpredictable terror, but his king-making aunt Mnkabayi, shocked by his Neronian matricide, now regarded him a ‘madman’. He had to be culled.

Shaka’s bodyguard Mbopha diverted the king’s attention by dispersing the gathered crowd. The king watched with amusement as Mbopha returned to take up his position behind him. But then, as the brothers approached, Mbopha speared Shaka in the back; Prince Mhlangana joined in, but Dingane, careful not to be a king slayer, held back. ‘What’s the matter with my father’s children?’ cried Shaka. ‘Are you stabbing me, king of the world? You’ll come to an end through killing one another.’ Mhlangana jumped over the body to claim the throne. The crowd watched in amazement. The assassins gathered to hear the sacred ballad and sacrifice a black ox to honour the deeds of ancestors and give thanksgiving to their father Senzangakona – and to purify the killers against wizardry.

Shaka was buried sitting up with a slice of buttock in his mouth to suppress the anger of his spirit; ten courtiers and women were sacrificed with him. The assassins banned mourning for the ‘madman’, then while Mbopha ran the kingdom, the Zulu family met to choose the new nkosi. Dingane was popular with the army, but Mhlangana had killed Shaka and jumped over his body. Dressed as a man, clad in robes of blue monkey tails and a feathered headdress, and brandishing a bundle of spears and a war shield, the Great She-Elephant Mnkabayi, who had made Shaka king and then agreed to his murder, denounced Shaka who had become chief only ‘through demented strength’. She decided that ‘the one with the bloody assegai’ – Mhlangana – ‘shall not rule’ and nominated Dingane, who called himself ‘the Mediator’. The She-Elephant ordered Mhlangana’s killing. Dingane invited Mhlangana to swim with him in the river, where the Great She-Elephant’s posse ambushed him.