7. Anon., “Students to Cut Last Tie to CIA,” New York Times, 12 August 1967, 1, 10.
8. Groves, “President’s Report.”
9. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Sr., “Biography of a Nation of Joiners,” American Historical Review 50 (1944): 1–25; Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, ed.
Harvey C. Mansfield and Delba Winthrop (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), p. 489.
10. Policy Planning Staff, “The Inauguration of Organized Political Warfare,” 4 May 1948, in C. Thomas Thorne, Jr., and David S. Patterson, eds., Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945–1950: Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1996), p. 670.
11. Quoted in Scott Lucas, Freedom’s War: The U.S. Crusade against the Soviet Union, 1945–1956 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999), p. 108.
12. Quoted in Evan Thomas, The Very Best Men—Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), p. 60.
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13. Groves, “President’s Report.”
14. Recent publications that touch on CIA front operations include Eric Thomas Chester, Covert Network: Progressives, the International Rescue Committee, and the CIA (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1995); Peter Grose, Operation Rollback: America’s Secret War behind the Iron Curtain (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000); Jöel Kotek, Students and the Cold War (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1996); Helen Laville, Cold War Women: The International Activities of American Women’s Organizations (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002); Lucas, Freedom’s War; Ted Morgan, A Covert Life: Jay Lovestone, Communist, Anti-Communist, and Spymaster (New York: Random House, 1999); and Robin Winks, Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939–1961, 2nd ed. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1996).
15. Frances Stonor Saunders, The Cultural Cold War: The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters (New York: New Press, 2000), published in the U.K. as Who Paid the Piper? The CIA and the Cultural Cold War (London: Granta, 1999).
16. Hugh Wilford, The CIA, the British Left, and the Cold War: Calling the Tune?
(London: Frank Cass, 2003).
17. Examples of such operations include the American Committee on United Europe (ACUE), the CIA’s principal front in the field of European federalism (the promotion of which was a major U.S. strategic aim in the postwar era), which dealt directly with federalist leaders in Europe. Similarly, the American Fund for Free Jurists (AFFJ) tended to function merely as a conduit by which CIA susbidies were channeled to the International Commission of Jurists (ICJ), a Europe-based organization that the Agency hoped would protest human rights abuses in the eastern bloc. For more on the ACUE, see Richard J. Aldrich, The Hidden Hand: Britain, America, and Cold War Secret Intelligence (London: John Murray, 2001), chap. 16, and Wilford, CIA, British Left, and Cold War, chap. 7.
On the AFFJ and ICJ, see Howard B. Tolley, Jr., The International Commission of Jurists: Global Advocates for Human Rights (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1994), chap. 1.
1. Innocents’ Clubs
1. See Stephen Koch, Double Lives: Spies and Writers in the Secret Soviet War of Ideas against the West (New York: Free Press, 1995), pp. 3–4, 320; Sean McMeekin, The Red Millionaire: A Political Biography of Willi Münzenberg, Moscow’s Secret Propaganda Tsar in the West (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2003), pp. 304–305.
2. Quoted in Koch, Double Lives, p. 8.
3. McMeekin, Red Millionaire, pp. 113–114.
4. Ibid., p. 1; Koch, Double Lives, p. 27.
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5. “Every business he touched . . . hemorrhaged red ink.” McMeekin, Red Millionaire, p. 2.
6. Quoted in Koch, Double Lives, p. 14.
