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16 This indicates that complete understanding of scholarly discourse (e.g. a literary text) presupposes, first, knowledge of the social conditions of production of the social competence (and not only linguistic competence) of the producers, who employ the totality of their properties (those which define their position in the social structure and also in the structure of the field of specialized production) in each of their productions; and, second, a knowledge of the conditions which govern the implementation of this competence, of the specific laws of the market concerned which, in this particular ease, coincide with the field of production itself (the fundamental characteristic of scholarly production consists in the fact that ns clientele is the set of other producers, i.e. its rivals).

17 Given that the work of representation and of the imposition of form is the sine qua non for ascertaining the existence of the expressive intention, the very idea of grasping some sort of content in its raw state, which would remain invariant through different forms, is meaningless.

IS One can thus class as euphemisms all the kinds of double meanings, particularly frequent in religious discourse, which enable one to get round censorship by naming the unnamablc in a form which avoids it being named (see ‘Censorship and the imposition of form*, ch. 6 in this

volume), and also all ihc forms of irony which, by denying the statement in the process of stating it, also produces double meaning -and twice the margin for manoeuvre - thereby enabling one to avoid the sanctions of a field. (On the defensive role of irony, see Berendon-ner, Elements de pragmatique hnguistique, esp. pp. 238-9),

19 C. Bally, Le langage et la vie (Geneva: Droz. 1965). p. 21.

20 This anticipation is guided by visible manifestations, like the attitude of the speaker, his expression (whether attentive or indifferent, haughty or engaging) and the encouragement in the voice or manner or the signs of disapproval Different experiments in social psychology have shown that the speed of speech, the quantity of speech, the vocabulary, the complexity of syntax, etc., vary according to rhe attitude of the person conducting the experiment, i.e. according to the strategies of selective reinforcement that he applies.

21 Learning in language occurs through familiarization with persons playing very broad roles, of which the linguistic dimension is but one aspect and never isolated as such, This is probably what confers the power of practical evocation on certain words which, being linked with a whole bodily posture and an emotional atmosphere, resurrect a complete vision of the world, a whole world; no doubt it also produce-the emotional attachment to the 'mother tongue', whose expressions, turns of phrase and words seem to imply a ‘surplus of meaning'.

22 Different experiments in social psychology have shown that the perils bourgeois are more adept than members of the lower classes at picking out social class according to pronunciation.

23 One would need to take these analyses further: on the one hand, by a more complete examination of the properties of the petits bourgeois which are pertinent to understanding linguistic dispositions, like ^heir trajectory (rising or falling) which, by providing them with an expert* ence of different milieux, inclines them - especially when they have to function as intermediaries between classes — to a quasi-sociological form of awareness; and. on the other hand, by examining the variations in these properties according to secondary variables, such as the position in the space occupied by the middle classes and the previous trajectory (cf, P, Bourdieu, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. tr.R Nice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. 1984), pt 3, ch. 6). Equally, one would need to distinguish, within the dominant class, between different relations to language.

24 Contrary to what Lakoff argues, the purely grammatical form of attenuation can be replaced by a whole series of substitutes, functioning as elements of a symbolic ritual, Anyone who has conducted an interview knows that the ground has to be laid well in advance for a ‘difficult’ question, and that the surest way of ‘getting away with if is not to surround it with circumlocutions and verbal attenuations which, on the contrary, would draw attention to it, hut to create a climate of collusion and to give the interview an overall tone which has a euphoric

and euphemizing effect, through jokes, smiles and gestures, in short, by creating a symbolic whole in which the purely linguistic form is just an element.