11. Saunders, Who Paid the Piper?, published in the United States as The Cultural Cold War: The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters (New York: New Press, 2000). Three other important histories of the CCF are Christopher Lasch, The Agony of the American Left (New York: Vintage, 1968), pp. 63–114 (the first and highly influential statement of the revisionist thesis); Peter Coleman, The Liberal Conspiracy: The Congress for Cultural Freedom and the Struggle for the Mind of Postwar Europe (New York: Free Press, 1989) (a semiofficial and laudatory account, which nonetheless remains useful); and Giles Scott-Smith, The Politics of Apolitical Culture: The Congress for Cultural Freedom, the CIA, and Postwar American Hegemony (London: Routledge, 2002) (which effectively employs the Gramscian concept of hegemony to theorize the CCF’s impact on western intellectual life).
12. Quoted in Saunders, Who Paid the Piper? p. 220.
13. Macdonald mischievously entitled a report on a 1955 CCF conference in Milan he had been commissioned to write for Encounter “No Miracle in Milan.” See Hugh Wilford, The New York Intellectuals: From Vanguard to Institution (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995), p. 230.
14. See Saunders, Who Paid the Piper? pp. 244–247; and Kenneth Osgood, Total Cold War: Eisenhower’s Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006), pp. 294–304. One estimate puts the number of books financed or produced by the CIA during the early Cold War period at 250.
John M. Crewdson and Joseph B. Treaster, “The CIA’s Three-Decade Effort to Mold the World’s Views,” New York Times, 25 December 1977, 1.
15. See, for example, the exchange between Phillips and Carol and Richard Ohmann in Critical Inquiry 3 (1977): 817–820.
16. Saunders, Who Paid the Piper? pp. 162–163, 335–338.
17. “L” to Allen Grover, n.d., 51.4, Henry Luce Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
18. Bertram Wolfe to Melvin Lasky, 22 January 1973, 9.44, Bertram D. Wolfe Papers, Hoover Institution, Stanford University.
19. Sidney Hook to John Thompson, n.d., 12.20, Sidney Hook Papers, Hoover Institution, Stanford University.
20. William Phillips, A Partisan View: Five Decades of the Literary Life (New York: Stein and Day, 1983), pp. 104–105.
21. Excerpt from H. J. Kaplan to J. M., 3 January 1950, 401.3464, Rockefeller Foundation Archives, Rockefeller Archive Center, Sleepy Hollow, New York.
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22. “Excerpt from interview, E. F. D. with H. J. Kaplan,” 14 February 1950, 401.3464, Rockefeller Foundation Archives.
23. James Burnham, “Mr. William Phillips’ proposed French Partisan Review, ” 9
March 1950, 11.2, James Burnham Papers, Hoover Institution, Stanford University.
24. Richard Cummings, “An American in Paris,” American Conservative, 16 February 2004, 21–22.
25. For revisionist studies of links between abstract expressionism and the Cold War American state, see Francis Frascina, ed., Pollock and After: The Critical Debate (London: Harper and Row, 1985), which contains essays by Max Kozloff, Eva Cockroft, and David and Cecile Shapiro; Serge Guilbaut, How New York Stole the Idea of Modern Art: Abstract Expressionism, Freedom, and the Cold War, trans.
Arthur Goldhammer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983); and Saunders, Who Paid the Piper? chap. 16. Saunders’s documentary film, “Art and the CIA,” screened in the 1995 Channel 4 series Hidden Hands: A Different History of Modernism, also concentrates on abstract expressionism.
26. Caute, Dancer Defects, p. 547.
27. Quoted in Saunders, Who Paid the Piper? p. 258.
28. Quoted in ibid., p. 268.
29. Quoted in ibid., p. 272.
30. Clement Greenberg, quoted in ibid., p. 267.
31. Caute, Dancer Defects, pp. 550–556.
32. See, for example, Michael Kimmelman, “Revisiting the Revisionists: The Modern, Its Critics, and the Cold War,” in The Museum of Modern Art at Mid-Century: At Home and Abroad, Studies in Modern Art 4 (New York: MoMA, 1994).
